Contributions of Feminism to Archaeological Theory

Contributions of Feminism to Archaeological Theory Introduction In its stages of conception, archaeology was considered to be merely a sub-discipline of both history and anthropology, and, in many cases, was restricted as a rich mans hobby. Developed during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the initial episode in the history of theoretical archaeology is usually referred to as culture history, a means by which early archaeologists established rudimentary predictive models patterning human behaviour within designated temporal and spatial contexts via the interpretation of artefactual evidence. Though universally popular during the first half of the twentieth century, culture history was rebelled against during the 1960s. Perceived as restrictive due to its reliance on categorisation of artefacts the paradigms of culture history were abandoned in favour of the newly developed school of thought known as New Archaeology. In an attempt to incorporate a level of scientific reasoning to anthropological archaeology, these primarily American archaeologists, chiefly Lewis Binford and his associates, moved away from simple descriptions of the past in favour of questioning why cultures developed and adopting hypothesis evaluations (Renfrew and Bahn, 1996). The scientific basis and reliance of New Archaeology instigated the widespread development of processual archaeology. Two decades later, processualisms focus on science and impartiality were increasingly questioned. Led by Ian Hodder, Michael Shanks and Christopher Tilley, a new approach to theoretical archaeology emerged, which emphasised the necessity of relativism in archaeological investigation (Shanks and Tilley, 1992). This methodology, known as post-processualism, however, has been criticised by proponents of processualism and New Archaeology for abandoning scientific competency and rigour, and the debate over the most appropriate theoretical approach to any archaeological analysis is still much in evidence. Theoretical archaeology now relies on a wide range of influences. During the 1970s and 80s, gender-related and feminist archaeology became popular among those archaeologists seeking a post-processual approach to cultural identity. Though phenomenology, post-modernism, and post-processualism are still discussed in the literature and relied upon to evaluate cultural diversity, feminist archaeology is, for the most part, unique in focusing on the collection of evidence of female social roles in past cultures and their influence in developing and sculpting individual societies (Gilchrist, 1998). Archaeological theory It is possible to summarise the history of how archaeology has been conducted in the twentieth century into three expansive concepts; predominantly description, explanation, and interpretation (Trigger, 1989). The chronological sequencing methodologies, encouraged by the culture history approach, allowed the description and ordering of artefacts using stratigraphic excavation and stylistic seriation, particularly with regard to ceramics and lithics. Though much disregarded following the development of processual and post-processual archaeology, the descriptive approach of culture history dominated the majority of the twentieth century, and successfully produced charts and maps of cultures based upon artefacts and stratigraphic sequences which are still relied on as initial datasets for investigation (Hodder and Hutson, 2003). Arguing for a new recognition of the processes behind the evidence obtained from the archaeological record, the development of complex processual archaeology encouraged many advocating theorists to analyse the evidence away from simple classifications and to view the archaeological record from a taphonomical viewpoint. Proponents of behavioural archaeology, such as Michael Schiffer (1983, 1995), argued that the culture history assumption of artefacts existing as in situ fossils restricted the comprehensive analysis of archaeology to categorisation alone. Processualism criticised culture history, and Binfords early statement that artefacts were â€Å"fossils† upon which past reconstructions could easily be made (Renfrew and Bahn, 1996), for epistemological simplicity. The recognition that much of the value of evidence from the archaeological record was being lost through the collection approach of culture history necessitated a review and reassessment of the methodology of arch aeological investigation, which, in turn, illustrated the problematic approaches of processualism with regard to the rigid, ethnocentric tenets of scientific archaeologists. Archaeology, it was criticised, saw what it wanted to see and moulded the evidence to fit ethnically biased hypotheses, predominantly a result of the domination of Caucasian male scientists within the field during the 1980s. For example, feminist archaeologists emphasised the androcentric approaches of theoretical archaeology by denouncing statements, from male archaeologists, that the commonly-cited Venus figurines of Europe represented the palaeolithic equivalent of pornography. During the era of processualism, a new-found movement of feminist archaeology began questioning the cultural presence of females in the archaeological record, debating their very existence at all (Conkey and Spector, 1984; Wylie, 1991). Feminist archaeology The exploration of the social status of genders in the past is the all-encompassing drive behind feminist archaeology. Though it has only recently become a field of study in its own right, the interest in prehistoric matriarchy stems largely from the nineteenth century, particularly with regard to claims made by J. J. Bachofen in 1861 and Frederick Engels in 1884. Engels and Bachofen proposed that matriarchy formed an important, universal phase in human culture after an initial stage of promiscuity and prior to what was termed the world historic defeat of the female sex (Key and MacKinnon, 2000). Engels suggested an early stage in human development was characterised by group marriage, with descent traced through women and matrilocality. Women had supremacy in the household and their high status derived from their central position within the social relations of production (Conkey and Gero, 1997), however, these conclusions were based not on archaeological evidence but on ancient myths and ethnographic cases. Marija Gimbutass interpretation of Early Neolithic farming communities as matrifocal and probably matrilinear, egalitarian and peaceful, worshipping a supreme goddess, is a result of her research into the symbolism of female figurines and statuary from household contexts in south-east Europe and the Near East (Gimbutas, 1974, 1989, 1991). Although unsupported by many archaeologists, her views have become unassailable for certain ecofeminist groups, and at least contrast with the androcentric evaluation of hunt scene cave art. The analyses of Palaeolithic figurines illustrate that differences in ethnological and epistemological approach potentially result in hugely varying disparities in the interpretative conclusions of particular artefacts, sites, and periods in history and prehistory. Overall, applying concepts of gender to all aspects of a specific culture is profoundly more productive than the restricted, narrow approaches of New Archaeology and culture history. It is important to archaeological interpretation that multiple varieties of gender, and their associated arrangements within a given culture, are illustrated and emphasised, in contrast to the previous assumption of a single dichotomy between proactive male and passive female roles. Feminist archaeologists, in general, have aspired to determining the quantity of genders in past societies, with particular regard to the engendering of biological sex. The most reliable sources of this data, as purported by many feminist archaeologists, are from funerary deposits. However, this data is frequently invisible or vague within the archaeological record, and the differentiation between the dichotomy of the biological status of sex and the cultural status of gender remains problematic. Furthermore, feminist archaeologists claim that a false dichotomy between the genders, often referred to as labour division, exists. Within modern indigenous and developed cultures, men and women are often assigned different functions within the community, and it is reasonable to assume that this division existed in the past, however, there is significant dislocation between gender-specific roles in most cultures. Feminist archaeology has contributed greatly to the umbrella field of archaeology by encouraging an avoidance of the polarisation of genders, thereby providing more subtle and comprehensive understanding of societies (Bem, 1993). Feminist archaeology has therefore contributed greatly to the understanding of archaeological interpretation. It has encouraged new questions and new methodological approaches to data sets, and has revolutionised observations and analyses of existing data, particularly with emphasis on removing bias from interpretation. In contrast to the assumptions purported by other schools of theoretical archaeology, feminism has critiqued and argued against presumed concepts, encouraging the application of epistemological analysis to gender roles. By challenging preconceived ideology regarding the interaction between men and women within past societies, feminist archaeology adopts a refreshingly questioning approach in contrast to the previous interpretation of sites based on current modern attitudes, practices and socio-cultural biases. Conclusion Unfortunately, there is no single consensus on the definition of feminism and feminist theory, and, therefore, it is unrealistic to portray feminist archaeology as a homogeneous, ideologically-coherent framework. As a movement of resistance and struggle against male oppression for womens empowerment, theoretical feminist objectives include a critique of female status in past societies and the definition of gender difference for women. Initial rethinking of the new female history, anthropology and archaeology focused on the countering of androcentric narratives, the recognition of powerful individual women in the past, the search for matriarchies in past societies, and the redressing of the balance hitherto ignored by theoretical archaeology. Sà ¸rensen (1992) has outlined three predominant categories of archaeological sources most useful for pursuing archaeologies of gender: burial activities, individual appearance through costume, particularly from funerary contexts, and some types of art. Though this is a short analysis of the benefit of feminism to archaeological theory and practice, details given here illustrate several ways that a feminist stance can improve and contribute to archaeological interpretations. In comparison to the previously biased analysis of singularly male roles within prehistory, feminist archaeology offers the opportunity to consider all aspects of men and women, particularly roles, status, and contemporary perceptions, from a balanced perspective. Many theoretical archaeologists now believe this to be essential to a comprehensive understanding of past societies. Economic relationships between communities, political structures, and ideological status are affected by our often biased interpretation of gender roles, and feminism, above all other schools of archaeological theory, attempts to desegregate the prejudiced views of gender superiority and inferiority, allowing clarity of interpretation, and giving a voice to the hitherto ignored female se ctions of past societies. Bibliography Bem, S. (1993) The Lenses of Gender. New Haven, Yale University Press Conkey, M. W. and Spector, J. D (1984) Archaeology and the study of gender. Advances in Archaeological Methods and Theory 7: 1-38 Conkey, M. W. and Gero, J. M. (1997) Programme to practice: Gender and Feminism in Archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology 26: 411-437 Gilchrist, R. (1998) Womens archaeology?: political feminism, gender theory and historical revision. In Hays-Gilpin, K. and Whitley, D. (eds.) Reader in Gender Archaeology. London, Routledge Gimbutas, M. (1974) The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe: myths and cult images. London, Thames and Hudson Gimbutas, M. (1989) The Language of the Goddess. London, Thames and Hudson Gimbutas, M. (1991) The Civilisation of the Goddess. New York, Harper Collins. Hodder, I. and Hutson, S. (2003) Reading the Past: Current Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Key C.J. and MacKinnon J.J. (2000) A Feminist Critique of Recent A rchaeological Theories and Explanations of the Rise of State-Level Societies. Dialectical Anthropology 25(2): 109-121 Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. (1996) Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practices. London, Thames and Hudson Schiffer, M. B. (1983) Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory. London, Academic Press Inc. Schiffer, M. B. (1995) Behavioural Archaeology. Utah, University of Utah Press Shanks, M. and Tilley, C. (1992) Reconstructing Archaeology: Theory and Practice. London, Routledge Sà ¸rensen, M. L. S. (1992) Gender archaeology and Scandinavian Bronze Age studies. Norwegian Archaeological Review 25: 31-49 Trigger, B. (1989) A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Wylie, A. (1991) Gender theory and the archaeological record: why is there no archaeology of gender? In Gero, J. and Conkey, M. (eds.) Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers

Analysis of A Black Birch in Winter :: Black Birch in Winter Essays

Analysis of A Black Birch in Winter This poem is extremely easy to understand if one understands the comparison being made. Although by saying that a tree may look old in the winter but it will appear reborn in the spring is what Wilbur is talking about, he is relating and comparing this to the life of an aging man. The poem states that "Old trees are doomed to annual rebirth, new wood, new life, new compass, and greater girth." This means that the tree will stretch and crack year after year to accommodate new growth. This resembles a rebirth of the tree each year, but also an aging process. The poem talks about the old tree and relates it to an aged man. "Or the trenched features of an aged man." It means that the tree is comparable to the aged man because it grows, stretches, and cracks as the years go by. The man grows older and becomes more wrinkled or "cracked," also. He will continue to get more wrinkled and cracked as the years go by. The tree can be looked upon as something not that fancy, like "mosaic columns in a church," along with the features of an aged man. The mosaic columns would appear to be big and old, probably scarred from weather and time, as a tree might look. As one looks and studies the old tree and its annual rebirth, one might notice that it is like a form of art. "And this is all their wisdom and their art, to grow, stretch, crack, and not yet come apart. The older trees get the stronger they usually get. When one looks at the cracks and features of the tree, one can notice how strong and wise the tree is by all the patterns and age marks on the tree. Rings are features that can tell how old a tree is. As the tree grows each year, and becomes stronger, the rings build themselves up around the old wood, which makes the tree bigger. There are some symbols in this poem that some critics of the psychological method use. Yonic and Phallic symbols are images that depict female and male images. Yonic symbols are concave symbols, which refer to females.

Journal Reflection on Barbie Dolls

Now I believe that childhood is the best phase of life. One never ever gets those experiences again during the rest of his life. One can see God in a child. The child has his innocence and the love he gets every time from everybody around. The child has the best grasping and memory during the phase of 2yrs. to 6yrs. This stays in memory through out the whole life. How can I forget my childhood days? Yes, I have very clear picture of my childhood days. I was the first child of my parents and as we stayed with our grandparents, I was pet and beloved one for them as well. I had my colorful room with all eye catchy colored things like my bed, clothes, wall hangings and room full of toys (decorations) and I was really crazy for all that exciting toys. I always wanted to play with all at a time, but out of that there was one particular toy (which is still preserved) that was part of my heart, soul and body. It never allowed any tears to flow from my eyes, but the moment it was for any reason away from me the tears never stopped flowing from my eyes. My attachment was 24X7 with it. It was none other than my precious BARBIE DOLL. I don’t know why, but I had a special affection, love, emotion, attachment and craze for that doll. I never ever allowed anyone to even touch that doll. My Barbie had long blond hair, blue eyes, long eye lashes and pink lips. Her waist was real skinny and her toes were flat with high heels. I loved my Barbie doll. She was more like a lively person (doll) to me. I had many friends but Barbie was my best friend, who knew everything about me, including my top secrets. I had a separate closet of clothes and shoes for her. I used to give a bath to her, dress her up everyday and take her with me where ever I went out with my parents or friends. I don’t know why I loved her and had so much affection towards her. May be I loved Barbie because I was girl and many girls were crazy about Babies. I don’t remember my memories from my childhood but this memory stayed with me till now and will always stay with me for my lifetime. This is my unforgettable Barbie love memory ever in my future lifetime. I really loved my Barbie doll.

Battle of Saratoga in the American Revolution

Battle of Saratoga in the American Revolution The Battle of Saratoga was fought September 19 and October 7, 1777, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne proposed a plan for defeating the Americans. Believing that New England was the seat of the rebellion, he proposed cutting the region off from the other colonies by moving down the Hudson River corridor while a second force, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, advanced east from Lake Ontario. Meeting at Albany, they would press down the Hudson, while General William Howes army advanced north from New York. British Plans An attempt to capture Albany from the north had been attempted the previous year, but the British commander, Sir Guy Carleton, had elected to withdraw after the Battle of Valcour Island (October 11) citing the lateness of the season. On February 28, 1777, Burgoyne presented his plan to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord George Germain. Reviewing the documents, he granted Burgoyne permission to move forward and appointed him to lead the army that would invade from Canada. Germain did so having already approved a plan from Howe that called for the British army in New York City to advance against the American capital at Philadelphia. Â   It is unclear whether Burgoyne was aware of Howes intentions to attack Philadelphia before he left Britain. Though Howe was later informed that he should support Burgoynes advance, he was not specifically told what this should entail. Additionally, Howes seniority precluded Burgoyne from issuing him orders. Writing in May, Germain told Howe that he expected the Philadelphia campaign to be concluded in time to assist Burgoyne, but his letter contained no specific orders. Burgoyne Advances Moving forward that summer, Burgoynes advance initially met with success as Fort Ticonderoga was captured and Major General Arthur St. Clairs command forced to retreat. Pursuing the Americans, his men won a victory at the Battle of Hubbardton on July 7. Pressing down from Lake Champlain, the British advance was slow as the Americans diligently worked to block the roads south. The British plan began to unravel in quick succession as Burgoyne became plagued by supply issues. To help remedy this issue, he dispatched a column led by Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum to raid Vermont for supplies. This force encountered American forces led by Brigadier General John Stark on August 16. In the resulting Battle of Bennington, Baum was killed and his predominantly Hessian command suffered over fifty percent casualties. The loss resulted in the desertion of many of Burgoynes Native American allies. Burgoynes situation was further worsened by news that St. Leger had turned back and that Howe had left New York to begin a campaign against Philadelphia. Alone and with his supply situation worsening, he elected to move south in an effort to take Albany before winter. Opposing his advance was an American army under the command of Major General Horatio Gates. Appointed to the position on August 19, Gates inherited an army that was rapidly growing due to the success at Bennington, outrage over the slaying of Jane McCrea by Burgoynes Native Americans, and the arrival of militia units. Gates army also benefited from General George Washingtons earlier decision to send north his best field commander, Major General Benedict Arnold, and Colonel Daniel Morgans rifle corps. Armies Commanders Americans Major General Horatio GatesMajor General Benedict ArnoldColonel Daniel Morgan9,000 growing to 15,000 men British Major General John Burgoyne7,200 declining to 6,600 men Battle of Freemans Farm On September 7, Gates moved north from Stillwater and occupied a strong position atop Bemis Heights, approximately ten miles south of Saratoga. Along the heights, elaborate fortifications were constructed under the eye of engineer Thaddeus Kosciusko which commanded the river and the road to Albany. In the American camp, tensions festered as the relationship between Gates and Arnold soured. Despite this, Arnold was given command of the left wing of the army and the responsibility for preventing the capture of heights to the west which dominated the Bemis position. Crossing the Hudson north of Saratoga between September 13-15, Burgoyne advanced on the Americans. Hampered by American efforts to block the road, heavy woods, and broken terrain, Burgoyne was not in position to attack until September 19. Seeking to take the heights to the west, he devised a three-prong attack. While Baron Riedesel advanced with a mixed British-Hessian force along the river, Burgoyne and Brigadier General James Hamilton would move inland before turning south to attack Bemis Heights. The third column under Brigadier General Simon Fraser would move further inland and work to turn the American left. Arnold and Morgan Attack Aware of British intentions, Arnold lobbied Gates to attack while the British were marching through the woods. Though preferring to sit and wait, Gates finally relented and permitted Arnold to advance Morgans riflemen along with some light infantry. He also stated that if the situation required, Arnold could involve more of his command. Moving forward to an open field on the farm of Loyalist John Freeman, Morgans men soon sighted the lead elements of Hamiltons column. Opening fire, they targeted the British officers before advancing. Driving back the lead company, Morgan was forced to retreat into the woods when Frasers men appeared on his left. With Morgan under pressure, Arnold funneled additional forces into the fight. Through the afternoon intense fighting raged around the farm with Morgans riflemen decimating the British artillery. Sensing an opportunity to crush Burgoyne, Arnold requested additional troops from Gates but was refused and issued orders to fall back. Ignoring these, he continued the fight. Hearing the battle along the river, Riedesel turned inland with most of his command. Appearing on the American right, Riedesels men rescued the situation and opened a heavy fire. Under pressure and with the sun setting, the Americans withdrew back to Bemis Heights. Though a tactical victory, Burgoyne suffered over 600 casualties as opposed to around 300 for the Americans. Consolidating his position, Burgoyne put off further attacks in the hope that Major General Sir Henry Clinton could provide assistance from New York City. While Clinton did raid up the Hudson in early October, he was not able to provide aid. In the American camp, the situation between the commanders reached a crisis when Gates did not mention Arnold in his report to Congress regarding the Freemans Farm battle. Devolving into a shouting match, Gates relieved Arnold and gave his command to Major General Benjamin Lincoln. Though granted a transfer back to Washingtons army, Arnold remained as more and more men arrived in camp. Battle of Bemis Heights Concluding the Clinton was not coming and with his supply situation critical Burgoyne called a council of war. Though Fraser and Riedesel advocated retreat, Burgoyne refused and they agreed instead upon a reconnaissance in force against the American left on October 7. Led by Fraser, this force numbered around 1,500 men and advanced from Freeman Farm to the Barber Wheatfield. Here it encountered Morgan as well as the brigades of Brigadier Generals Enoch Poor and Ebenezer Learned. While Morgan attacked the light infantry on Frasers right, Poor shattered the grenadiers on the left. Hearing the fighting, Arnold dashed from his tent and took de facto command. With his line collapsing, Fraser tried to rally his men but was shot and killed. Beaten, the British fell back to the Balcarres Redoubt at Freemans Farm and Breymanns Redoubt slightly to the northwest. Attacking Balcarres, Arnold was initially repulsed, but worked men around the flank and took it from behind. Organizing an attack on Breymanns, Arnold was shot in the leg. The redoubt subsequently fell to American assaults. In the fighting, Burgoyne lost another 600 men, while American losses were only around 150. Gates remained in camp for the duration of the battle. Aftermath The next evening, Burgoyne began withdrawing north. Halting at Saratoga and with his supplies exhausted, he called a council of war. While his officers favored fighting their way north, Burgoyne ultimately decided to open surrender negotiations with Gates. Though he initially demanded an unconditional surrender, Gates agreed to a treaty of convention whereby Burgoynes men would be taken to Boston as prisoners and permitted to return to England on the condition that they not fight in North America again. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered his remaining 5,791 men. The turning point of the war, the victory at Saratoga proved key in securing a treaty of alliance with France.

Symbolism Through Color Usage In Song of Solomon essays

Symbolism Through Color Usage In Song of Solomon essays Colors bring exuberance and flavor to writing. They capture the reader's attention and fill the novel with expressive and inventive symbols. Toni Morrison possesses an extraordinary artistic talent with writing. Phrases like "blood red squares of velvet, "berry-black lips, and "jungle-red wine" leave readers awestruck from page one of Song of Solomon. Using this spectacular talent, Morrison intensifies every page with intricate descriptions of color and emotions. The incredible journey of Milkman, the main character in the novel, is not in any way simple, and neither is Morrison's writing. From the birth that was almost denied to Milkman, to his journey to enlightenment, not one sentence lacks vivid color usage, and thus gives Song of Solomon revealing symbolism, uniqueness, and an ability to amaze its audience. The first use of symbolism uses not only color as a source of information, but the words additionally foreshadow what the Dead family life will be like for years to come. Macon Dead's disappointment in his young, innocent daughters "sifted down on them like ash, dulling their buttery complexions and choking the lilt out of what should have been girlish voices." This sentence alone represents how bright and full of life Corinthians and Lena are, yet their own father slowly drains the flamboyance and boldness from their lives. Macon's lack of compassion, along with his sovereignty in the household, connects to the rest of the novel by instilling fear and sub-dominance in the girls, which they constantly try to overcome. This scene alone gives Macon a heartless and cold feel for the course of the novel. The symbol of the "blood red" roses is introduced next. Though these flowers fill the girls' lives, the red velvet roses additionally represent them and tell the story of their lives as well. Like these roses, the girls are beautiful and exuberant, yet they are also lifeless, with no emotions apparent to the o...

Improving Decision Making, DB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Improving Decision Making, DB - Essay Example efuted that the reason why people often answer not-so-confidently on these questions was the fact that nations or states are all capable of conducting such actions. That is, since the choice of states to be answered are limited only to the Soviet Union and the US, the questions cannot really accurately determine that indeed, people cannot determine the difference between Soviet and American political actions. It is also possible that respondents may have thought of another state or nation which can be applied in the context or scenarios given. Thus, the first activity demonstrated how reasoning and decision-making are multi-faceted. While there are specific answers to challenges or problems, there are different ways in the manner by which the individual arrived at the answer. That is, the individual may have guessed correctly that for both scenarios, s/he identified the correct nation/state. However, his/her assessment in arriving at the answer may have been contributed by the fact that the facts of both scenarios are unique or somewhat identified to a single country only. For example, the use of the term â€Å"party† in the first scenario signified the Communist party Soviet Union was popularly known for in the late 20th century. Similarly, the 1960s was a period of invasion and active political expansion and military movement for the US. Thus, responses for both scenarios were not motivated by the actions of the countries alone, but on the facts of the scenarios—the association of the facts of each scenari o to a particular country. This finding from the first activity is reflected in the second activity, which discussed the issue of â€Å"calibration.† From the first activity, it was shown how decision-making cannot be done solely on the basis of one criterion alone; instead, decision-making is composed of different facets that influence the individual’s decision to choose one solution over another one. In the second activity, the exercise

Stress Management in the Workplace Research Paper

Stress Management in the Workplace - Research Paper Example By finding out the common reasons of job related stress, companies can identify likely â€Å"trouble spots† (Maslach & Leiter, 1997, p. 72) in their own business. The more extensive the application of the term ‘stress’, the more indefinable its meaning. Well known meaning of stress, that is identified by everyone, is a personal experience due to anxiety or burden on a person, and negatively affects the person’s capability to handle or rather, his/her viewpoint regarding that capability. Bad teamwork and ineffective management were the two important reasons behind job related stress, with bad teamwork concerns having the â€Å"most powerful influence† (Maslach & Leiter, 1997, p. 81) on work-related fatigue, physical fitness problems, and performance issues. Job related stress is associated with fatigue, physical as well as psychological wellbeing issues, and performance issues, such as absence, high employee turnover and mistakes. At this point in time, main worry of workers is to find a way for having stability in responsibilities of professional as well as personal life. Taking into consideration the fact that flexibility is a very crucial concern for employees, having insignificant flexibility in the job will be a significant factor contributing towards stress. â€Å"The more practical as well as uncompromising a company is about taking time off, looking for professional agendas, and so forth, the more the level of stress of its staff† (Maslach & Leiter, 1997, p. 87). Stress affects people by at least two ways. â€Å"First, prolonged stress makes people to regress† (Stranks, pp. 23-24). Their mental growth upsets, and they are likely to act in an immature manner. They promptly turn out to be more careless as well as irresponsible. A simple, common everyday example is a sick person who is unhappy and suffering from a number of days. His family members will agree that he has become self-centered, loud, and